Turkey is home to some of the most extraordinary underground cities ever created by human civilization. Hidden beneath the volcanic landscapes of Central Anatolia, particularly in the region of Cappadocia, these vast subterranean complexes were carved into soft volcanic rock and served as refuges, settlements, religious centers, storage facilities, and defensive strongholds for thousands of years.
Today, more than 200 underground settlements and hundreds of cave complexes have been identified across Cappadocia, making Turkey the world’s most important region for underground urban archaeology. Some of these cities descend more than 85 meters below the surface and were capable of sheltering entire communities, complete with livestock, food supplies, churches, schools, wineries, wells, and sophisticated ventilation systems.
Why Were Underground Cities Built?
The underground cities of Turkey were primarily developed as safe refuges during periods of invasion, warfare, religious persecution, and political instability.
Several factors made Cappadocia ideal for underground construction:
- Soft volcanic tuff rock could be easily carved.
- The rock remained structurally stable after excavation.
- The region experienced frequent invasions throughout history.
- Underground environments maintained stable temperatures year-round.
- Hidden entrances offered protection from enemies.
Many cities were expanded during the Byzantine period, when Christian communities sought refuge from Arab raids and other military threats. Entire populations could disappear underground for weeks or even months.
The Geological Secret of Cappadocia
Millions of years ago, volcanic eruptions from ancient volcanoes such as Mount Erciyes and Mount Hasan covered Central Anatolia with thick layers of volcanic ash.
Over time, this ash solidified into tuff, a soft yet durable rock that could be excavated with simple tools. This unique geology allowed generations of inhabitants to carve homes, monasteries, churches, storage rooms, and eventually entire underground cities beneath the surface.
Derinkuyu Underground City: The Giant Beneath the Earth
The most famous and largest underground city in Turkey is Derinkuyu Underground City.
Key Facts
- Maximum depth: approximately 85 meters
- Up to 18 levels
- Capacity: around 20,000 people
- Rediscovered in 1963
- Largest excavated underground city in Turkey
- Open to visitors today
Discovery
In 1963, a local resident renovating his basement discovered a hidden chamber behind a wall. Further exploration revealed an immense underground city extending deep beneath the town. What began as a simple home renovation became one of Turkey’s most significant archaeological discoveries.
What Exists Inside?
Visitors can explore:
- Residential quarters
- Kitchens
- Storage rooms
- Wineries
- Churches
- Schools
- Livestock stables
- Wells
- Ventilation shafts
- Defensive corridors
Perhaps the most impressive features are the giant circular stone doors that could seal passages from within, making the city extremely difficult to penetrate during attacks.
Engineering Marvel
Derinkuyu contains dozens of ventilation shafts and wells that supplied fresh air and water to residents deep underground. This infrastructure allowed thousands of people to survive below ground for extended periods.
Kaymaklı Underground City: The Underground Labyrinth
The second most famous underground settlement is Kaymaklı Underground City.
Although not as deep as Derinkuyu, Kaymaklı is wider and contains a remarkable network of tunnels and chambers.
Highlights
- Eight levels in total
- Four levels open to visitors
- Extensive residential quarters
- Churches and chapels
- Wine production facilities
- Food storage areas
- Defensive tunnels
Unlike Derinkuyu’s vertical design, Kaymaklı spreads horizontally through a maze-like network of tunnels, creating the impression of an underground village rather than a deep subterranean fortress.
Historical evidence suggests that both cities may have functioned as part of a larger defensive network across Cappadocia.
Other Underground Cities Worth Visiting
Özkonak Underground City
Known for its advanced defense systems, including communication holes and special openings used to monitor approaching enemies.
Mazi Underground City
A less-visited underground settlement featuring churches, living quarters, and ancient defensive passages. It offers a quieter experience than Derinkuyu and Kaymaklı.
Tatlarin Underground City
Famous for its large communal halls and extensive residential areas.
Saratlı Underground City
One of the best-preserved underground settlements outside the main Cappadocia tourist circuit.
Gaziemir Underground City
Known as a unique underground caravanserai where traders and travelers could safely shelter along ancient trade routes.
Daily Life Underground
Life beneath the earth was surprisingly organized.
Residents maintained:
- Family living spaces
- Kitchens and bakeries
- Livestock areas
- Food storage rooms
- Religious spaces
- Schools
- Water systems
- Ventilation networks
Archaeological evidence indicates that these cities were not merely emergency shelters. Some sections appear to have been occupied for extended periods and were designed to support complete communities.
Religion and Underground Christianity
The underground cities played an important role in early Christian history.
Many chambers served as:
- Churches
- Chapels
- Monasteries
- Religious schools
Wall carvings, crosses, and worship spaces found throughout the cities demonstrate their significance as centers of Christian life during periods of persecution and conflict.
Mysteries and Unanswered Questions
Despite decades of research, several mysteries remain:
Who Built the First Tunnels?
Some scholars attribute the earliest excavations to ancient peoples such as the Phrygians, while others suggest earlier origins. Most experts agree that successive civilizations expanded the cities over centuries.
How Extensive Is the Network?
Archaeologists continue discovering new underground complexes throughout Central Anatolia. Some researchers believe many more tunnels and chambers remain hidden beneath modern towns.
Were Cities Connected?
There are longstanding reports of underground passages linking some settlements, including a possible route between Derinkuyu and Kaymaklı. While sections have been identified, the full extent of these connections remains uncertain.
Visiting Turkey’s Underground Cities
The best base for exploring these wonders is the region of Cappadocia.
Best Time to Visit
- April to June
- September to November
These seasons offer pleasant weather and fewer crowds.
Must-See Underground Cities
- Derinkuyu Underground City
- Kaymaklı Underground City
- Özkonak Underground City
- Tatlarin Underground City
- Saratlı Underground City
Visitor Tips
- Wear comfortable walking shoes.
- Expect narrow passages and steep stairways.
- Not ideal for severe claustrophobia.
- Allow at least 1–2 hours per site.
- Combine visits with Cappadocia’s rock churches, valleys, and hot-air balloon experiences.
Turkey’s underground cities are among the greatest engineering achievements of the ancient world. Carved into volcanic rock over centuries, these hidden settlements reveal how entire communities adapted to conflict, climate, and uncertainty. From the immense depths of Derinkuyu to the labyrinthine passages of Kaymaklı, they offer a fascinating glimpse into a world where survival depended on disappearing beneath the earth itself.
Today, the underground cities of Cappadocia remain one of Turkey’s most remarkable cultural treasures—an unforgettable journey into a hidden civilization that flourished beneath the surface.
